officially the
Republic of Indonesia (
Indonesian:
Republik Indonesia), is a country in
Southeast Asia and
Oceania. Indonesia comprises
17,508 islands. With over 238 million people, it is the world's fourth
most populous country, and has the world's largest
population of Muslims. Indonesia is a
republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is
Jakarta. The country shares land borders with
Papua New Guinea,
East Timor, and
Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include
Singapore,
Philippines,
Australia, and the Indian territory of the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of
ASEAN and a member of the
G-20 major economies. The
Indonesian economy is the world's
eighteenth largest economy by nominal
GDP and
fifteenth largest by
purchasing power parity.
The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when
Srivijaya and then later
Majapahit traded with
China and
India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries
CE, and
Hindu and
Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought
Islam, and European powers brought
Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of
Maluku during the
Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of
Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured
its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism,
a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change. The current nation of Indonesia is a
unitary presidential republic consisting of
thirty three provinces.
Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The
Javanese are the largest—and the politically dominant—ethnic group. Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism including rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto,
"Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity"
literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of
biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread in contemporary Indonesia.
[6]
Etymology
The name
Indonesia derives from the Latin
Indus, and the Greek
nesos, meaning "island".
[7] The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.
[8] In 1850,
George Windsor Earl, an English
ethnologist, proposed the terms
Indunesians — and, his preference,
Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".
[9] In the same publication, a student of Earl's,
James Richardson Logan, used
Indonesia as a synonym for
Indian Archipelago.
[10] However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use
Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms
Malay Archipelago (
Maleische Archipel); the
Netherlands East Indies (
Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly
Indië;
the East (
de Oost); and even
Insulinde.
[11]
From 1900, the name
Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.
[12] Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book
Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was
Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name
Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.
[8]
History
Picture: a
ship carved on
Borobudur, circa 800 CE. Indonesian outrigger boats may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the first century CE.
[13] Fossilized remains of
Homo erectus, popularly known as the "
Java Man", suggest that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.
[14] Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago.
[15] Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000
BCE, and as they spread through the archipelago, confined the native
Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions.
[16] Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of
wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,
[17] allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including links with Indian kingdoms and China, which were established several centuries BCE.
[18] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.
[19]
The
nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's
Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.
From the 7th century CE, the powerful
Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of
Hinduism and
Buddhism that were imported with it.
[20] Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist
Sailendra and Hindu
Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's
Borobudur and Mataram's
Prambanan. The Hindu
Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under
Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia.
[21]
Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the
earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern
Sumatra.
[22] Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.
[23] The first Europeans arrived in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by
Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg,
cloves, and
cubeb pepper in Maluku.
[24] Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the
Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the
Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.
[25]
For most of
the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.
[26] Japanese occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule,
[27] and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement.
[28] Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945,
Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president.
[29] The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and
an armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence
[30] (with the exception of
the Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962
New York Agreement, and the UN-mandated
Act of Free Choice of 1969).
[31]
Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president
Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the
military and the
Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).
[32] An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led
a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.
[33] Between 500,000 and one million people were killed.
[34] The head of the military,
General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His
New Order administration[35] was supported by the US government,
[36] and encouraged
foreign direct investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.
[37] However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the
late 1990s Asian Financial Crisis.
[38] This increased popular discontent with the New Order and led to
popular protest across the country. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998.
[39] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after
a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese.
[40] Since Suharto's resignation,
a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first
direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism slowed progress, however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian discontent and violence has occurred.
[41] A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in
Aceh was achieved in 2005.
[42]
Government and politics
Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the central government. Following the
resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the
1945 Constitution of Indonesia[43] have revamped the
executive,
judicial, and
legislative branches.
[44] The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the
Indonesian National Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice president.
[45] The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.
[46]
A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta
The highest representative body at national level is the
People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.
[47] The MPR comprises two houses; the
People's Representative Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the
Regional Representative Council (DPD), with 132 members.
[48] The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by
proportional representation.
[44] Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance.
[49] The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.
[50]
Most civil disputes appear before a State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before the High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the country's highest court, and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court (Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Sharia Law cases.
[51]
Foreign relations and military
In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and
tensions with Malaysia,
Indonesia's foreign relations since the Suharto "New Order" have been based on economic and political cooperation with Western nations.
[52] Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of
ASEAN and the
East Asia Summit.
[48] The nation restored relations with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era.
[51] Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950,
[53] and was a founder of the
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the
Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC).
[48] Indonesia is signatory to the
ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the
Cairns Group, and the
WTO, and has historically been a member of
OPEC, although it withdrew in 2008 as it was no longer a net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.
[48]
The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant
Islamism and
Al-Qaeda.
[54] The deadliest killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the
Bali resort town of
Kuta in 2002.
[55] The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia's
tourism industry and foreign investment prospects.
[56]
Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD),
Navy (TNI–AL, which includes marines), and Air Force (TNI–AU).
[57] The army has about 233,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations.
[58] One of the reforms following the 1998 resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI representation in parliament; nevertheless, its political influence remains extensive.
[59]
Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.
[60] Following a sporadic thirty-year guerrilla war between the
Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005.
[61] In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and
human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.
[62]
Administrative divisions
Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own political legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (
kabupaten) and cities (
kota), which are further subdivided into districts (
kecamatan), and again into
village groupings (either
desa or
kelurahan). Furthermore, a village is divided into several citizen-groups (Rukun-Warga (RW)) which are further divided into several neighbourhood-groups (Rukun-Tetangga (RT)). Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected
lurah or
kepala desa (village chief).
The provinces of Aceh, Jakarta,
Yogyakarta, and
West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of
Sharia (Islamic law).
[63] Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution.
[64] Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, now West Papua, was granted special autonomy status in 2001.
[65] Jakarta is the country's special capital region.
Indonesian provinces and their capitals – listed by region
(Indonesian name in parentheses if different from English)
† indicates provinces with Special Status
Geography
Indonesia lies between latitudes
11°S and
6°N, and longitudes
95°E and
141°E. It consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.
[66] These are scattered over both sides of the
equator. The largest are Java, Sumatra,
Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of
Timor. Indonesia shares maritime borders across narrow straits with Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines to the north, and with Australia to the south. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.
[67]
At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's
16th-largest country in terms of land area.
[68] Its average population density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world,
[69] although Java, the world's most populous island,
[70] has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft),
Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and
Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the
Mahakam and
Barito; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.
[71]
Indonesia's location on the edges of the
Pacific,
Eurasian, and
Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of numerous
volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes,
[72] including
Krakatoa and
Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba
supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a
global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the
2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra,
[73] and the
Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However,
volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.
[74]
Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a
tropical climate, with two distinct
monsoonal wet and
dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780–3,175 millimeters (70–125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas—particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua—receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26–30 °C (79–86 °F).
[75]
Biota and environment
Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil),
[76] and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and
Australasian species.
[77] Once linked to the Asian mainland, the islands of the
Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the
tiger,
rhinoceros,
orangutan,
elephant, and
leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Forests cover approximately 60% of the country.
[78] In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku—having been long separated from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and fauna.
[79] Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a
unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.
[80]
Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.
[81] Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers (50,000 mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal
ecosystems, including beaches,
sand dunes,
estuaries,
mangroves,
coral reefs,
sea grass beds,
coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.
[7] The British naturalist,
Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between the distribution and peace of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.
[82] Known as the
Wallace Line, it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep
Lombok Strait, between
Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book,
The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.
[83] The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed
Wallacea.
[82]
Indonesia's high population and rapid
industrialization present serious
environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.
[84] Issues include
large-scale deforestation (much of it
illegal) and related wildfires causing
heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid
urbanization and
economic development, including
air pollution,
traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and
waste water services.
[84] Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.
[85] Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of
mammals identified by the
World Conservation Union (IUCN) as
threatened, and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.
[86]
Economy
Using
water buffalo to plough rice fields in Java. Agriculture has been the country's largest employer for centuries.
Indonesia has a
mixed economy in which both the private sector and government play significant roles.
[87] The country is the largest economy in
Southeast Asia and a member of the
G-20 major economies.
[88] Indonesia's estimated
gross domestic product (nominal), as of 2009 was US$539.7 billion with estimated nominal
per capita GDP was US$2,329, and per capita GDP PPP was US$4,157 (
international dollars).
[89] The industry sector is the economy's largest and accounts for 47.6% of GDP (2009). This is followed by services (37.1%) and agriculture (15.3%).
[90] However, as of 2005, agriculture remained employing more people than other sectors, accounting for 44.3% of the 95 million-strong workforce, this was followed by the services sector (36.9%) and industry (18.8%).
[91]
Indonesia's main export markets (2009) are Japan (17.28%),
Singapore (11.29%),
the United States (10.81%), and China (7.62%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Singapore (24.96%),
China (12.52%), and
Japan (8.92%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs. And the country's major export commodities include oil and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, rubber, and textiles.
[92]
Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia and the country's largest commercial center.
In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and economic nationalism, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger.
[93] Following President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought
a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled
foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment.
[94] (See
Berkeley Mafia). Indonesia was until recently Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates.
[95] Following further reforms in the late 1980s,
[96] foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented
manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%.
[97]
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the
Asian financial crisis of 1997–98. Against the US dollar, the
rupiah dropped from about Rp. 2,600 to a low point of 14,000, and the economy shrank by 13.7%.
[98] The Rupiah stabilised in the Rp. 8,000 to 10,000 range,
[99] and a slow but significant economic recovery has ensued. However, political instability, slow economic reform, and corruption slowed the recovery.
[6] Transparency International, for example, has since ranked Indonesia below 100 in its
Corruption Perceptions Index.
[100][101] Nevertheless, GDP growth has been 5% annually since 2004.
[102] The Growth, however, was not enough to make a significant impact on unemployment.
[103] Stagnant wages growth, increases in fuel and rice prices in 2005, moreover, worsened poverty levels. As of 2006, an estimated 17.8% of the population was living below the
poverty line, defined by the Indonesian government as purchasing power parity of US$1.55 per day (household income), and nearly half of the population was living on less than US$2 per day.
[104] Since 2007, GDP growth has averaged 6%,
[105] and the unemployment rate dropped to 7.7% in 2009.
[106] Unlike its neighbors, Indonesia was barely affected by the 2008
global recession.
[107] Driven by high domestic consumption, surplus balance of payment and improving banking sector, the Indonesian economy grew by 6.2 per cent in 2010. Inflationary and regulatory weaknesses, however, remain problems.
[108][109][110]
Demographics
Balinese children. There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia.
The population of Indonesia according to the 2010 national census is 237.6 million,
[3] with population growth still high at 1.9 percent.
[111] 58% living on the island of
Java,
[3] the world's most populous island.
[112] Despite a fairly effective
family planning program that has been in place since the 1960s, the population is expected to grow to around 254 million by 2020 and 288 million by 2050.
[113]
Most Indonesians are descended from
Austronesian-speaking peoples whose languages can be traced to Proto Austronesian (PAn), which possibly originated in Taiwan. Another major grouping are
Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia.
[114] There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia, and 742 different languages and dialects.
[115] The largest ethnic group is the Javanese, who comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally dominant.
[116] The
Sundanese, ethnic
Malays, and
Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups.
[117] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.
[118] Society is largely harmonious, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence.
[119] Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising 3-4% of the population.
[120] Much of the country's privately owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-Indonesian-controlled,
[121] which has contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.
[122]
The
Istiqlal Mosque in Central Jakarta. Indonesia has the world's largest population of Muslims
The official national language,
Indonesian, a form of
Malay, is universally taught in schools, and consequently is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It is based on the
prestige dialect of Malay, that of the
Johor-Riau Sultanate, which for centuries had been the
lingua franca of the archipelago, standards of which are the official languages in Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei. It was promoted by Indonesian nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the
official language under the name
Bahasa Indonesia on the proclamation of independence in 1945. Most Indonesians speak at least one of the
several hundred local languages and dialects, often as their
first language. Of these,
Javanese is the most widely spoken as the language of the largest ethnic group.
[123] On the other hand, Papua has over 270 indigenous
Papuan and
Austronesian languages,
[124] in a region of about 2.7 million people. A significant fraction of the people who attended school before independence can speak Dutch to some extent.
[125]
Although religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution,
[126][dead link] the government officially recognizes only six religions:
Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism,
Hinduism, Buddhism, and
Confucianism.
[127] Although it is not an Islamic state, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with 86.1% of Indonesians were Muslim according to the 2000
census.
[123] 9% of the population was Christian, 3% Hindu, and 2% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese,
[128] and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese.
[129] Though now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences in
Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century.
[130] Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries,
[131] and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch
Calvinist and
Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period.
[132] A large proportion of Indonesians—such as the Javanese
abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians—practice a less
orthodox,
syncretic form of their religion, which draws on local customs and beliefs.
[133]
Culture
Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural identities developed over centuries, and influenced by Indian, Arabic, Chinese, and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology, as do
wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles such as
batik,
ikat and
songket are created across Indonesia in styles that vary by region. The most dominant influences on
Indonesian architecture have traditionally been
Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant.
Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often associated with illegal gambling.
[134] The most popular sports are
badminton and
football.
Indonesian players have won the
Thomas Cup (the world team championship of men's badminton) thirteen of the twenty-six times that it has been held since 1949, as well as numerous Olympic medals since the sport gained full Olympic status in 1992. Its women have won the
Uber Cup, the female equivalent of the Thomas Cup, twice, in
1994 and
1996.
Liga Indonesia is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include
sepak takraw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as,
caci in
Flores, and
pasola in
Sumba.
Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art.
A selection of Indonesian food, including roasted fish,
nasi timbel (rice wrapped in banana leaf),
sambal, fried
tempeh and
tofu, and
sayur asem.
Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.
[135] Rice is the main
staple food and is served with
side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili),
coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients.
[136] Indonesian traditional music includes
gamelan and
keroncong.
Dangdut is a popular contemporary genre of pop music that draws influence from Arabic, Indian, and Malay folk music. The
Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia,
[137] although it declined significantly in the early 1990s.
[138] Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased.
[137]
The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of
Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century CE. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli, who criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans
Muhammad Yamin and
Hamka, who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians;
[139] and proletarian writer
Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist.
[140] Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly rooted
oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.
[141]
Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media.
[142] The
TV market includes ten national commercial networks, and provincial networks that compete with public
TVRI. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 25 million users in 2008,
[143] Internet usage was estimated at 12.5% in September 2009.
[144]
More than 30 million cell phones are sold in Indonesia each year, and 27 percent of them are local brands.
[145]
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